The Four Vedas and Number, Nature and purpose of Hymns

The Four Vedas and Number, Nature and purpose of Hymns

The four Vedas—Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—contain varying numbers of hymns, reflecting their distinct purposes in Vedic tradition. Below is the approximate number of hymns in each Veda, based on standard scholarly sources, tailored for competitive exam preparation. The term "hymns" refers to distinct poetic or ritualistic compositions (suktas or mantras), though counts may vary slightly due to textual recensions or interpretive differences.

 

 

1. Rigveda: ~1,028 hymns

The oldest and most significant Veda, the Rigveda consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas) organized into 10 mandalas. These hymns primarily praise deities like Indra, Agni, and Soma, focusing on cosmology and rituals. For exams, note its role as the foundation of Vedic literature and its poetic structure.

2. Yajurveda: ~1,875 hymns (mantras)

The Yajurveda, focused on sacrificial rituals, contains approximately 1,875 mantras across its two main recensions: Shukla (White) and Krishna (Black). The Krishna Yajurveda (e.g., Taittiriya Samhita) has prose and verse, while Shukla Yajurveda (e.g., Vajasaneyi Samhita) is more structured. Many mantras are derived from the Rigveda. Emphasize its ritualistic focus for exams.

3. Samaveda: ~1,549 hymns

The Samaveda, centered on melodies for rituals, contains 1,549 hymns, most of which are adapted from the Rigveda for chanting during sacrifices. Organized into Purvarchika and Uttararchika, it prioritizes musical notation over original content. For exams, highlight its role in Soma rituals and its derivative nature.

4. Atharvaveda: ~730 hymns

The Atharvaveda, dealing with everyday life, magic, and healing, comprises about 730 hymns in 20 kandas. Unlike the other Vedas, it includes original compositions alongside some Rigvedic borrowings, addressing practical concerns like health and prosperity. For exams, note its distinct focus on incantations and its later acceptance.

Notes for Competitive Exams

• Rigveda (1,028 hymns) is the primary source for deity-specific hymns, while Yajurveda (1,875 mantras) and Samaveda (1,549 hymns) focus on rituals, often reusing Rigvedic content.
• Atharvaveda (730 hymns) stands out for its practical and magical focus, with fewer deity-specific hymns.
• Exact counts may vary slightly due to recensions (e.g., Shakala for Rigveda, Shaunaka for Atharvaveda) or shared mantras.
• For exams, emphasize the Rigveda’s foundational role, Yajurveda and Samaveda’s ritualistic adaptations, and Atharvaveda’s unique focus on daily life.

 

Gods and Number of Hymns dedicated to each God in 4 Vedic Literature

 

Gods and Number of Hymns dedicated to each God in 4 Vedic Literature

Determining exact hymn counts for each god across all four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda) is challenging due to shared hymns, ritualistic adaptations, and interpretive variations in scholarly sources. The Rigveda (1,028 hymns) provides the most precise data, but Yajurveda and Samaveda often reuse Rigvedic hymns, and Atharvaveda (730 hymns) focuses more on incantations than deity-specific hymns.  

List of Gods by Hymns Across All Four Vedas (Descending Order)

1. Indra (289 hymns)

Indra, the thunder god and slayer of Vritra, is the most prominent deity. The Rigveda dedicates 250 hymns to him, reflecting his martial and cosmic significance. The Yajurveda includes 25 references in ritual contexts. The Samaveda adapts 10 Rigvedic hymns for chants. The Atharvaveda has 4 hymns invoking Indra for protection or victory. His dominance is key for exam questions on Vedic religion’s focus on power and order.

2. Agni (218 hymns)

Agni, the fire god, is central to sacrifices across all Vedas. The Rigveda has 200 hymns praising his role as a divine intermediary. The Yajurveda includes 12 ritual mantras. The Samaveda adapts 4 Rigvedic hymns for chants. The Atharvaveda has 2 hymns invoking Agni for protection. His consistent presence is crucial for questions on Vedic rituals and their sacrificial framework.

3. Soma (135 hymns)

Soma, the ritual drink and lunar deity, is prominent in the Rigveda with 123 hymns, especially in Mandala 9. The Yajurveda includes 8 references in sacrificial rites. The Samaveda adapts 3 hymns for chanting. The Atharvaveda has 1 hymn for healing or prosperity. His role in ritual ecstasy is a frequent exam topic for Vedic sacrificial practices.

4. Ashvins (56 hymns)

The twin gods of healing are praised in the Rigveda with 48 hymns for their benevolence. The Yajurveda includes 5 ritual references. The Samaveda adapts 2 Rigvedic hymns. The Atharvaveda has 1 hymn for health-related incantations. Their secondary role is relevant for questions on Vedic minor deities.

5. Varuna (46 hymns)

Varuna, god of cosmic order, has 40 hymns in the Rigveda, often with Mitra. The Yajurveda includes 4 ritual references. The Samaveda adapts 1 hymn. The Atharvaveda has 1 hymn for protection or justice. His declining prominence in later Vedas is key for understanding shifts in Vedic theology.

6. Mitra (36 hymns)

Mitra, associated with contracts, has 30 hymns in the Rigveda, mostly with Varuna. The Yajurveda includes 4 ritual references. The Samaveda adapts 1 hymn. The Atharvaveda has 1 reference. His role in social harmony is useful for exam comparisons with Varuna.

7. Ushas (25 hymns)
• Ushas, the dawn goddess, has 21 hymns in the Rigveda for her beauty. The Yajurveda includes 2 ritual references. The Samaveda adapts 1 hymn. The Atharvaveda has 1 symbolic reference. Her poetic hymns are key for Vedic literature questions.
8. Vayu (20 hymns)
• Vayu, the wind god, has 16 hymns in the Rigveda, often with Indra. The Yajurveda includes 2 ritual references. The Samaveda adapts 1 hymn. The Atharvaveda has 1 hymn for vitality. His minor role is relevant for comparisons with major gods.
9. Vishnu (15 hymns)
• Vishnu, a minor deity, has 11 hymns in the Rigveda for his cosmic strides. The Yajurveda includes 2 ritual references. The Samaveda adapts 1 hymn. The Atharvaveda has 1 reference. His growing importance is critical for Vedic-to-Puranic transition questions.
10. Rudra (15 hymns)
• Rudra, precursor to Shiva, has 10 hymns in the Rigveda for his fierce and healing aspects. The Yajurveda (e.g., Shatarudriya) includes 3 references. The Samaveda adapts 1 hymn. The Atharvaveda has 1 hymn for healing. His evolving role is key for exam questions on Vedic deities.

Notes for Competitive Exams

• Rigveda dominates hymn counts (1,028 hymns), with Yajurveda and Samaveda focusing on rituals and chants, often reusing Rigvedic hymns. The Atharvaveda (730 hymns) emphasizes incantations over deity-specific hymns.
• Exact counts are based on Rigveda’s clear hymn structure and approximations for other Vedas due to their derivative nature. Shared hymns (e.g., Indra-Agni) are attributed to the primary deity.
• Indra, Agni, and Soma dominate due to ritual and societal roles. Vishnu and Rudra’s limited hymns foreshadow their later prominence.
• For exams, focus on the Rigveda’s primary role, Yajurveda and Samaveda’s ritualistic adaptations, and Atharvaveda’s practical focus.

 

State-Wise List of Deemed Universities in India

 

State-Wise List of Deemed Universities in India

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Institute of Higher Learning, Port Blair, Established in 2024, Specialisation: Multi-disciplinary

Andhra Pradesh

• Audisankara (Deemed to be University), Gudur, Established in 2001 (deemed university status in 2025), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management, Visakhapatnam, Established in 1980 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Established in 1980 (deemed university status in 2009), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science, Madanapalle, Established in 1998 (deemed university status in 2025), Specialisation: Technology
• Siddhartha Academy of Higher Education, Vijayawada, Established in 1977 (deemed university status in 2024), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Anantapur, Established in 1981 (deemed university status in 1981), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Vignan's Foundation for Science, Technology & Research, Guntur, Established in 1997 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology

Arunachal Pradesh

• North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Itanagar, Established in 1986 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Technology

Assam

• Central Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, Established in 1959 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Technology

Bihar

• Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda, Established in 1951 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Buddhist Studies

Chandigarh

• Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, Established in 1921 (deemed university status in 2003), Specialisation: Technology

Delhi

• Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, Established in 1905 (deemed university status in 1958), Specialisation: Agricultural Science
• Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi, Established in 1963 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Management
• Indian Law Institute, New Delhi, Established in 1956 (deemed university status in 2004), Specialisation: Law
• Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences, New Delhi, Established in 2009, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, Established in 1948 (deemed university status in 1989), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga, New Delhi, Established in 1998 (deemed university status in 2021), Specialisation: Yoga
• National Museum Institute of the History of Art, Conservation and Museology, New Delhi, Established in 1983 (deemed university status in 1989), Specialisation: Museology
• National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, Established in 1962 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Education
• National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, Established in 1961 (deemed university status in 2023), Specialisation: Education
• TERI School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi, Established in 1998 (deemed university status in 1999), Specialisation: Applied Science

Gujarat

• Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad, Established in 1920 (deemed university status in 1963), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Sumandeep Vidyapeeth, Waghodia, Established in 1999 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Medical Sciences

Haryana

• Lingaya's Vidyapeeth, Faridabad, Established in 1998 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Technology, Management
• Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Ambala, Established in 1993 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Established in 1997 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• National Brain Research Centre, Manesar, Established in 1997 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Neuroscience
• National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Established in 1923 (deemed university status in 1989), Specialisation: Dairy Research

Jharkhand

• Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Established in 1955 (deemed university status in 1986), Specialisation: Technology
• National Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ranchi, Established in 1966 (deemed university status in 2024), Specialisation: Technology

Karnataka

• BLDE (Deemed to be University), Bijapur, Established in 2008, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Christ (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Established in 1969 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS), Bengaluru, Established in 2025, Specialisation: Interdisciplinary
• Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Established in 1909 (deemed university status in 1958), Specialisation: Science
• International Institute of Information Technology Bangalore, Bengaluru, Established in 1999 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Technology
• JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysore, Established in 2008, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Jain (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Established in 1990 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, Established in 1989 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Science
• Kristu Jayanti (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Established in 1999 (deemed university status in 2025), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• KLE Academy of Higher Education & Research, Belgaum, Established in 2006, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Udupi, Established in 1953, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• NITTE, Mangaluru, Established in 2008, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research, Kolar, Established in 1986 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Sri Siddhartha Academy of Higher Education, Tumkur, Established in 2008, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana, Bengaluru, Established in 2002, Specialisation: Yoga
• St. Aloysius (Deemed to be University), Mangaluru, Established in 1880 (deemed university status in 2024), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangaluru, Established in 1991 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Medical Sciences

Kerala

• Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Established in 2007 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Space Science
• Chinmaya Vishwavidyapeeth, Ernakulam, Established in 2016, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Kerala Kalamandalam, Thrissur, Established in 1930 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Performing Arts

Ladakh

• Central Institute of Buddhist Studies, Leh, Established in 2006 (deemed university status in 2018), Specialisation: Buddhist Studies

Madhya Pradesh

• Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education, Gwalior, Established in 1957 (deemed university status in 1995), Specialisation: Physical Education
• Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, Established in 1982, Specialisation: Forestry
• Madhav Institute of Technology and Science, Gwalior, Established in 1957 (deemed university status in 2024), Specialisation: Technology

Maharashtra

• Bharati Vidyapeeth, Pune, Established in 1964 (deemed university status in 1996), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, Established in 1961 (deemed university status in 1989), Specialisation: Fisheries Science
• D. Y. Patil Education Society, Kolhapur, Established in 1987 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wardha, Established in 1950 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Pune, Established in 1821 (deemed university status in 1990), Specialisation: Archeology and Linguistics
• Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune, Established in 1952 (deemed university status in 2000), Specialisation: Technology
• Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Established in 1996 (deemed university status in 2003), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune, Established in 1930 (deemed university status in 1993), Specialisation: Economics
• Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, Established in 2005, Specialisation: Science
• Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, Established in 1987 (deemed university status in 1995), Specialisation: Economics
• Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, Established in 1933 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, Established in 1956 (deemed university status in 1985), Specialisation: Population Science
• Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences, Satara, Established in 1982 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• MGM Institute of Health Sciences, Navi Mumbai, Established in 1982 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies, Mumbai, Established in 1981 (deemed university status in 2003), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Padmashree Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Navi Mumbai, Established in 2002, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences, Ahmednagar, Established in 1976 (deemed university status in 2003), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Symbiosis International, Pune, Established in 1971 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, Established in 1945 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Science
• Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, Established in 1936 (deemed university status in 1964), Specialisation: Social Science
• Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune, Established in 1921 (deemed university status in 1987), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary

Odisha

• Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar, Established in 2004, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary, Xenophobic studies
• Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Established in 1993 (deemed university status in 2017), Specialisation: Social Science
• Siksha 'O' Anusandhan, Bhubaneswar, Established in 2007, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary

Puducherry

• Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth, Pondicherry, Established in 2001 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Medical Sciences

Punjab

• Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sangrur, Established in 1989 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Technology
• Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Established in 1956 (deemed university status in 1985), Specialisation: Technology

Rajasthan

• Banasthali Vidyapith, Tonk, Established in 1935 (deemed university status in 1983), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• IIS (Deemed to be University), Jaipur, Established in 1995 (deemed university status in 2009), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Institute of Advanced Studies in Education, Churu, Established in 1950 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Education
• Jain Vishva Bharati Institute, Ladnun, Established in 1991, Specialisation: Jain Studies
• Janardan Rai Nagar Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur, Established in 1937 (deemed university status in 1987), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• LNM Institute of Information Technology, Jaipur, Established in 2003 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Technology
• National Institute of Ayurveda, Jaipur, Established in 1976 (deemed university status in 2020), Specialisation: Ayurveda

Tamil Nadu

• Academy of Maritime Education and Training, Chennai, Established in 1993 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Marine Science
• Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, Established in 1994 (deemed university status in 2003), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore, Established in 1957 (deemed university status in 1988), Specialisation: Home Science
• B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Established in 1984 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, Established in 1984 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Chennai Mathematical Institute, Siruseri, Established in 1989 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Mathematics
• Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chengalpattu, Established in 2005 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Dr. M.G.R. Educational and Research Institute, Chennai, Established in 1988 (deemed university status in 2003), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Gandhigram Rural Institute, Dindigul, Established in 1956 (deemed university status in 1976), Specialisation: Rural Education
• Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, Established in 1985 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, Established in 1984 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Established in 2008, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Established in 1986 (deemed university status in 2004), Specialisation: Technology
• Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, Established in 2001, Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education, Kumarakovil, Established in 1989 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Periyar Maniammai Institute of Science & Technology, Vallam, Established in 1988 (deemed university status in 2007), Specialisation: Technology
• Ponnaiyah Ramajayam Institute of Science and Technology, Thanjavur, Established in 1985 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Established in 1987 (deemed university status in 2001), Specialisation: Technology
• Saveetha Institute of Medical And Technical Sciences, Chennai, Established in 1986 (deemed university status in 2005), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Shanmugha Arts, Science, Technology & Research Academy, Thanjavur, Established in 1984 (deemed university status in 2001), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya, Kanchipuram, Established in 1993, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, Established in 1985 (deemed university status in 1994), Specialisation: Medical Sciences
• SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kanchipuram, Established in 1985 (deemed university status in 2002), Specialisation: Technology
• St. Peter's Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, Established in 1992 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Established in 2008, Specialisation: Technology
• Vels Institute of Science, Technology & Advanced Studies, Chennai, Established in 1992 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology
• Vinayaka Mission's Research Foundation, Salem, Established in 1981 (deemed university status in 2001), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Established in 1984 (deemed university status in 2001), Specialisation: Technology

Telangana

• ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education, Hyderabad, Established in 1995 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology, Management
• International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Established in 1998 (deemed university status in 2001), Specialisation: Technology

Uttar Pradesh

• Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Varanasi, Established in 1967 (deemed university status in 1988), Specialisation: Tibetan Studies
• Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, Established in 1917 (deemed university status in 1981), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Established in 1889 (deemed university status in 1983), Specialisation: Veterinary Science
• Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, Established in 2001 (deemed university status in 2004), Specialisation: Technology
• Nehru Gram Bharati, Prayagraj, Established in 1962 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, Established in 1910 (deemed university status in 2000), Specialisation: Agriculture
• Santosh (Deemed to be University), Ghaziabad, Established in 1995, Specialisation: Medical
• Shobhit Institute of Engineering & Technology, Meerut, Established in 2000 (deemed university status in 2006), Specialisation: Technology

Uttarakhand

• Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Established in 1906 (deemed university status in 1991), Specialisation: Forestry
• Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, Established in 1993 (deemed university status in 2008), Specialisation: Technology, Management
• Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Established in 1902 (deemed university status in 1962), Specialisation: Multidisciplinary

West Bengal

• Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute, Belur, Established in 2005, Specialisation: Multidisciplinary
• Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute, Kolkata, Established in 1995 (deemed university status in 2024), Specialisation: Film school
• Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, Established in 1876 (deemed university status in 2018), Specialisation: Basic & Applied Sciences
• TCG CREST, Kolkata, Established in 2020, Specialisation: Science and Technology